Aquaculture Species for the Northeast
Joe Buttner, SUNY College at Brockport
Gef Flimlin, New Jersey Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service
Don Webster, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland System
Introduction
Many aquatic animals and plants are cultured commercially in the northeastern
United States, while others have been grown for research or demonstration.
No one species is appropriate for all situations. Species cultured successfully
in one area may prove impractical or unprofitable in another.
Information on species that are appropriate for your area may be obtained
from your University Extension agents and specialists. These individuals
can also identify contacts for permits and regulations which will apply
to your proposed operation.
Species Cultured
Finfish, shellfish, and aquatic plants are cultured commercially and recreationally
for food, bait, stocking, research, bioassay tests, ornamental markets,
and as instructional aides. The following species have culture potential
for the northeastern United States.
Finfish and Freshwater Crustaceans
A. Cultured Commercially
1. Rainbow, brown, and brook trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Salmo
trutta, and Salvelinus fontinalis, respectively) are cold
water fish which require well oxygenated water below 65F. They are cultured
commercially in many northeastern states. Pennsylvania and New York are
the leading producers in the region.
Most trout are grown in flow-through systems; although some culturists currently
reuse their water and a few use cages or net pens. Rainbow trout are marketed
for stocking and as food fish. Brown and brook trout are stocked for recreational
fishing; some are also sold as food fish.
2. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) are native to the eastern United
States and better suited to aquaculture conditions than their Pacific coast
relatives. The Atlantic salmon has become an important aquaculture species.
Most commercial aquaculture in the Northeast is located in New England,
particularly Maine.
Atlantic salmon are released as smolts in streams to enhance natural populations
and cultured in cages or net pens placed in areas with substantial flushing.
Smolts may be produced in freshwater hatcheries or purchased.
3. Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) are the most important live
bait produced in the region. They are usually raised in ponds. Culture ponds
are typically fertilized with a vegetable material such as soybean meal
or wheat sorts which stimulates the growth of algae. The resultant plankton
bloom is eaten by the fish. Some growers use a low protein, commercial fish
feed. Potential markets exist for fathead minnows as bioassay and research
animals.
4. Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) are the most important fish
currently cultured in the United States. Both fingerlings and feeds are
commercially available.
Most channel catfish are raised in the southern United States in ponds one-half
to ten acres in size. Cage and net pen culture are also practiced. In an
existing pond, cage culture represents one way for those considering fish
fanning to try their hand at fish culture with a minimal cash investment.
Catfish can survive a wide range of temperatures and will tolerate brackish
water. Commercial culture in the Northeast may be limited to the mid-Atlantic
region because catfish grow best above 80F. Throughout much of the Northeast
the culture season is too short for commercial success.
5. Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and its hybrids (M. saxatilis
x M. sp.) have recently been cultured commercially. They are raised
as striped bass or, more commonly. hybridized with other fish in the genus
Morone such as the white bass (M. chrysops), white perch (M.
americana), or yellow bass (M. mississippiensis). The most commonly
cultured fish are the female striped bass x male white bass hybrid (also
known as the Palmetto Bass) and the reciprocal cross, female white bass
x male striped bass (also known as the Sunshine Bass). Hybrids usually have
a deeper body, shorter tail, and more sloped head than the striped bass.
Striped bass and its hybrids tolerate a wide range of temperatures and salinities,
from fresh to salt water. They are a warm water species and grow best at
75-83' F. The length of the growing season is one factor that determines
where they can be raised profitably.
Striped bass and its hybrids are cultured commercially in ponds, flow-through
systems, and cages. Work is being done with culture in recirculating systems.
Striped and hybrid bass culture are still in development and many questions
require additional research.
6. Goldfish (Carassius auratus) and ornamentals are commonly cultured
in small ponds or tanks. Because of their high value, recirculating systems
have commercial potential. Outdoor culture units may be covered in winter
to protect fish from the cold. Ornamentals are marketed live so survival
in transport is very important. The market is highly competitive and well
established.
7. Several species of gamefish are cultured commercially in the northeastern
United States. Included in this group are sunfish (Lepomis sp.),
black bass (Micropterus sp.), walleye (Stizostedion vitreum),
yellow perch (Perca flavescens), trout, and Atlantic salmon. Culture
methods vary considerably between species. In most cases the fish farmer
purchases or hatches eggs and rears the fry to fingerling size. Fingerlings
are then sold and stocked for recreation; some are reared in growout operations
for market.
Fingerling sunfish, bass, and walleye are normally produced in ponds, while
fingerling salmonids (trout and salmon) are produced in raceways or tanks.
Culture procedures for some species such as bass, sunfish, trout, and salmon
are better known than for others, such as walleye and yellow perch.
8. Crawfish (Orconectes sp. and Procambarus sp.) are crustaceans;
they represent a significant aquaculture industry with substantial growth
potential in the Northeast. Most culture occurs in small, shallow ponds
where the animals feed on natural vegetation that may be supplemented with
hay or other grain by-products. Though more correctly characterized as a
shellfish, crawfish are grown in concert with minnows. In New York, for
instance, crawfish are raised with fathead minnows and marketed as bait.
Crawfish may be harvested with traps or a seine.
Procambarus are cultured in the mid-Atlantic region as a human food for
local markets. Several species of Orconectes are grown in the Northeast.
Some potential exists to market these as human food, particularly in Europe.
Orconectes more closely resembles the traditional "noble crayfish"
(Astacus astacus) and are more readily accepted by European consumers
than the red swamp crawfish (P. clarkii) and the white river crawfish
(P. zonangulus).
B. Potential Commercial Species:
1. Tilapia (Tilapia sp.) have been cultured commercially in the United
States. They are hardy, grow rapidly, and are acceptable, though not well
known to consumers. Tilapia are tropical fish and require warm water to
survive. If water temperatures fall below approximately 50-55 F, they will
die. In this region, most Tilapia culture has occurred in ponds during summer
or in heated units such as recirculating systems. Commercial culture in
the Northeast has not been demonstrated on a sustained basis.
2. Golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas) are the mainstay of the
live-bait industry in Arkansas, although some are cultured commercially
in the Northeast. Usually cultured in ponds, golden shiners are less hardy
than the fathead minnow. In much of the Northeast, they require two growing
seasons in order to reproduce. However, the golden shiner is more appealing
to the angler and attains a larger size than the fathead minnow.
3. White suckers (Catostomus commersoni) are captured during their
spring spawning run by some bait producers in the Northeast. Eggs are stripped
and incubated; hatched fry are reared in ponds. Suckers grow faster than
golden shiners and in one growing season attain a size desired by bass and
pike anglers. Market size and culture details require further research.
4. Bullhead (Ameiurus sp.) are a popular recreational and food fish
in the Great Lakes basin. Experimental work indicates that black bullhead
(A. melas) survives and grows well in ponds or cages. They do best
in turbid waters. Farmers are growing and marketing bullhead in upstate
New York, but the economics are inconclusive.
5. Carp (Cyprinus carpio), an important finfish in the world, has
minimal but growing demand in the United States. Technology to culture carp
in ponds is well known and the fish is suited to conditions throughout the
Northeast. The principal obstacle is poor consumer acceptance. Carp could
provide a dependable supply of fish for use in value-added products such
as surimi and fish sausage.
6. Grass carp or White amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella) are occasionally
stocked in ponds to control aquatic vegetation. The sterile triploid is
most commonly used. The fish survives well and grows rapidly. Laws regulating
its importation and use vary between states. Culturists should consult their
Department of Natural Resources or its equivalent before stocking fish.
C. Experimental Species
1. Walleye are prized throughout the northern United States as a premier
food fish. Fingerlings can be trained to accept pelleted food, but the procedure
requires special skills. A few growers are producing walleyes in ponds and
cages. Most are marketed as advanced fingerlings. although some are sold
as food fish. Growers in the northeastern United States could benefit from
advances in walleye culture.
2. Yellow perch are extremely popular food fish in the northern United States.
They are hardy. can be trained to accept pelleted feeds. and are grown in
a variety of systems such as single-pass and recirculating systems. At present.
neither the technology nor the economics of their culture beyond fingerling
stage have been adequately developed.
3. Recently. significant advances have occurred in the culture of sturgeon
(Acipenser sp.). White sturgeon (A. transmontanus) are now
being raised and sold by western producers. They are typically marketed
at 8-12 pounds as food. Other potential markets include roe as caviar and
small fingerlings for the aquarium trade. The culture technology has not
yet been transferred to other geographic areas or to other sturgeon species;
4. Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) are an attractive, hardy. and
rapid growing relative of the brook and lake trout. Arctic char tolerate
cold temperatures and grow best below 50F. They have been grown successfully
in flow through, cage and net pen systems that use marine or fresh water.
Limited availability of fingerlings, regulatory problems, and lack of marketing
information are major constraints.
5. Prawns and shrimp (Macrobrachium sp. and Penaeus sp.) are
subtropical crustaceans that do not survive when water temperatures fall
below approximately 55 F. Post larval Macrobrachiwn are grown in fresh water,
penaeids are cultured in brackish water. In the Northeast their culture
potential is limited and the technology has not been adequately demonstrated.
Those interested in the culture of these crustaceans should consider crawfish
culture as a most likely alternative.
6. Several species of marine finfish are being viewed as potential aquaculture
candidates. Included in this group are halibut (Pleuronectidae),
cod (Gadidae). Turbot (Pleuronectidae). and flounder (Bothidae
and Pleuronectidae). Many problems exist and culture techniques need
further development before these fish can be considered for commercial aquaculture.
Shellfish
A. Cultured Commercially
1. Northern quahog or Hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) are one
of the most widely cultivated molluscs in the region. An established market
exists and the product is recognized as a moderate to high priced item in
the restaurant trade. The smallest. legally marketable clams bring the highest
price. They are hardy and have been cultivated successfully throughout the
region.
The best results have been achieved in coastal waters off Massachusetts
and south to Florida. Adult clams are spawned under controlled conditions.
Larvae are fed a specially prepared algal diet and raised in land-based
upwellers. tanks. or raceways. The nursery phase can be on land or in the
water.
Spat or seed are stocked on the bottom in coastal waters and grown to marker
size. Time to market size is extremely site specific. Typically it takes
three to five years to attain this size, but with improved strains. a preferred
site. and good management culture time can be reduced.
2. Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) have been cultured in
the Northeast for over 100 years and are grown commercially throughout the
eastern United States, including the Gulf Coast. Techniques through the
nursery phase are well-documented. Oyster seed or eyed larvae may be purchased
and "set" on appropriate substrate. Oysters may be cultured directly
on the bottom or in racks off the bottom. Management includes predator control.
grading, and cleaning. Good water flow is essential. The greatest impediments
to oyster culture are disease. restrictive laws. and regulations (Federal,
State. local, etc.). Prospective culturists should thoroughly research sites
that they are considering.
3. Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) are increasingly popular. Through
aggressive marketing in the early 1980s. the demand and retail price for
mussels has improved steadily. There is no hatchery phase for commercial
cultivation. Seed is collected from nature and replanted on the bottom at
a density much lower than that found in natural beds. or placed in long
mesh sleeves suspended in the water column. Most mussels are cultured in
Maine.
B. Potential Commercial Species
1. Soft clams or Softshells (Mya arenaria) can be produced in large
numbers by using hatchery techniques. Although the market is strong for
steamed or fried product, little work has been done to develop effective
growout methods. A relatively low price when compared to other bivalves
has contributed to this neglect. Maine is currently culturing soft clams
for restocking in public waters. Although used successfully in stock enhancement,
the potential for commercial cultivation of soft clams is not considered
promising at this time.
2. Bay scallops (Argopecten irradians) can be cultured in the hatchery
or obtained from the wild. However, relatively little attention has been
directed to their culture. The scallop can move. so containing them is a
challenge. Lantern nets have been used to culture scallops in the Orient.
but similar efforts in the United States have proven too labor intensive
for commercial success. Markets exist for a half-shell product in upscale
restaurants. although the demand currently appears small. Prospective culturists
should carefully assess the management and economics of scallop culture
before proceeding.
3. Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) for steaming have long been popular
in the marketplace. Their abundance in coastal waters south of Long Island
provides sufficient numbers to meet marker demand and reduces the need for
culture. However, a market exists for "soft shell" crabs which
occur immediately after a molt and are considered a delicacy. Crabs with
body marks indicating an imminent molt are collected from nature and held
in shallow tanks until they emerge from their shell. These shedding systems
are fairly simple and the potential for commercial success is good. provided
an adequate supply of high quality and reasonably priced crabs is available.
C. Experimental Species
1. Atlantic clams or Surf clams (Spisula solidissimia) are being
cultured experimentally in Maine. Hatchery seed and hard clam growout technology
are being used. The project is on-going and, at this time, it is unclear
how or whether techniques can be applied commercially.
2. American lobster (Homarus americanus) are often regarded as animals
with great potential for aquaculture because of their high price. Lobsters
have been cultured only to a juvenile stage for release to nature. Public
hatcheries are operated for enhancement stocking. Private attempts at culture
are not recommended at this time.
References
Aquaculture Information Center, National Agricultural Library, Rm. 111,
Beltsville, MD 20705. Several up-to-date bibliographies are available on
the culture of different species. (free)
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Northeastern Regional Aquaculture Center
through grants number 89-385004356 and 90-38500-5211 from the Cooperative
State Research Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Any opinions. findings.
or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
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Last updated March 16, 1997